# Puerto Rico Excursion Guide. Illustrated Checklist

Biology 330 class report from the March 2014 trip

## Places

### Puerto Rico:

Puerto Rico, officially the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, is a territory of the United States, located in the north-eastern Caribbean east of the Dominican Republic and west of the US Virgin Islands and the British Virgin Islands. Due to its location, Puerto Rico enjoys a tropical climate and is subject to beautiful weather year round. Originally populated for centuries by the aboriginal people known as Taíno, the island was claimed by Christopher Columbus for Spain during his second voyage to the Americas on November 19, 1493. In 1898, Spain ceded the archipelago to the United States as a result of its defeat in the Spanish-American War under the terms of the Treaty of Paris.

The island is mostly mountainous with large coastal areas in the north and south. The main mountain range is called «La Cordillera Central» (The Central Range). The highest elevation in Puerto Rico, Cerro de Punta 1,339 meters (4,393 ft), is located in this range. Another important peak is El Yunque, one of the highest in the Sierra de Luquillo at the El Yunque National Forest, with an elevation of 1,077 m (3,533 ft).

### El Yunque National Forest:

El Yunque National Forest is the sole tropical rain forest in the U.S. National Forest System. The forest is a relatively small 28,000 acre size. It differs significantly from all the other U.S. National Forests because of its year-round tropical climate and immense biodiversity.The rugged Luquillo Mountains that rise to 3,533 ft. above sea level comprise most of the forest land. Their steep slopes can sometimes receive rainfall of over 200 inches per year at higher elevations. Caressed by gentle easterly winds the forest has an average temperature of 73° F (21° C), and seasonal changes are almost imperceptible. It is the ideal climate for tropical vegetation. The rainforest is noted for its biodiversity; it is «home» to thousands of native plants including 150 fern species, 240 tree species (88 of these are endemic or rare and 23 are exclusively found in this forest). The El Yunque National Forest has no large wildlife species, but hundreds of smaller animals abound in this gentle forest, many of which exist nowhere else on the planet.

Each year the park welcomes about 600,000 visitors from all over the world who come to sample the rainforest's eco-tourism pleasures while developing a greater understanding of its ecological importance by walking the many beautiful trails.

### Humacao Natural Reserve:

The Humacao Nature Reserve is located on the south-eastern coast of the island of Puerto Rico. With over 3000 acres, located in the municipality of Humacao, this fantastic nature reserve offers beach, mangroves, swamps, marshes, channels, and an interconnected lagoon system great for kayaking, birding, fishing, and crabbing.

What adds to the diversity and makes the Humacao Reserve one of the more unique nature reserves in Puerto Rico is the fact that the landscape consists of forests, lagoons, beaches and a coconut plantation. There is also a sugarcane plantation that was closed down in 1970 and a World War II Roosevelt Roads Naval base bunker. As well as a turtle population that frequents the beaches of the reserve. It is also known for its diverse and spectacular collection of approximately ninety bird species that have made their homes in this protected area.

### Guanica Dry Forest

Guanica Dry Forest:

Guanica is a subtropical dry forest on the southwest side of Puerto Rico. It is considered the best preserved subtropical forest and best example of a dry forest in the Caribbean. The forest covers 9,000 acres, has rolling hills, open plains, and ends in the Guanica Bay. In 1919 it was designated as a reserve and in 1981 became a United Nations Biosphere Reserve. The forest occurs in the rain shadow caused by the Cordillera Central. The Cordillera Central is a mountain range that crosses the island from west to east. Guanica is Puerto Rico's driest area with temperatures ranging from 80 Fahrenheit in the shade to 100 in exposed areas. The average rainfall is only 791 millimeters.

Out of the sixteen species of birds that are endemic to Puerto Rico, nine can be find in Guanica. Some of these species include the Puerto Rican woodpecker, Puerto Rican lizard cuckoo, the critically endangered Puerto Rican nightjar, and the Puerto Rican emerald hummingbird. There are also reptiles and amphibians including the Coqui tree frog, numerous other small endemic frogs, and various lizards including some species of Anoles.

The vegetation can be divided into three main groups, upland deciduous, semi-evergreen, and the scrub forest. In the lower scrub forest there is exposed limestone and different species of cacti can be found. In the semi-evergreen zone the tallest trees are found including the Guayacan tree. In the upland deciduous zone Exostema caribaeum can be found with unique flowers with slender white tubular petals. Out of the 700 plant species found in the forest 48 are endangered, and 16 are endemic to Guanica. A common attraction to the forest is a Guayacan tree, Lignum vitae, believed to be over 400 years old.

### Parguera coral reef:

The insular shelf of La Parguera, on the southwest coast of Puerto Rico, is characterized by an extensive development of coral reefs, seagrass beds, and mangrove forests. The dry, warm, and relatively stable climate, low wave energy, high water transparency, relatively wide shelf, oligotrophic offshore waters, and low urban coastal development are some of the factors that contribute to the conditions of the marine ecosystem of La Parguera. Interactions among coral reef, sea grass, and mangrove communities provide for a highly productive, structurally complex, and biologically diverse ecosystem.

Coral reefs act as barriers to wave action and permit the establishment of sea grasses and fringing mangroves. In turn, sea grasses and mangroves contribute organic matter for coral nutrition and serve as important foraging and nursery habitats for coral reef fishes and other organisms. Also, a new discovery of thriving coral reefs off the coast of Puerto Rico has been found. Scuba diving scientists discovered sprawling and diverse coral reefs at 100 to 500 feet (30 to 150 meters) below the ocean surface within a 12-mile (19-kilometer) span off the southwestern coast near La Parguera, Puerto Rico.

### Bio Bay:

La Parguera is a small fishing village in the town of Lajas, Puerto Rico; located on the southwest coast of the island La Parguera is one of four areas in Puerto Rico that has a very unique and remarkable night time phenomenon, a Phosphorescent Bay. The Bioluminescent Bay is actually made up of two bays, Bahia Monsio Jose and Bahia la Parguera; when the still waters are disturbed they glow with millions of microscopic organisms known as dinoflagellates. This unique bay contains up to 720,000 single-celled bioluminescent dinoflagellates per gallon of water. This phenomenon occurs only in tropical areas, typically in mangrove-protected bays such as the one found at La Parguera. Puerto Rico is the only place on the planet that has three sites where you can depend on this phenomenon to occur every night, La Parguera being one of them. Nature is unpredictable and there are plenty of factors that affect Bio Bay's performance -- anything from moon phase to weather and tides.

### Caguas Botanical and Cultural Garden:

The Botanical and Cultural Garden William Miranda Marin is located nearby major cities in the island of Puerto Rico -just 30 minutes away from San Juan, the Capital City. The Garden promotes a lot more than respect for nature: it is also an exponent of the country's history. Sugar cane production and commerce are inseparable elements of the Caribbean's evolution during the last centuries. In the Garden figure as witnesses the centenary ruins of the ancient San Jose Sugar Plantation, as well as the rebuilt old large hut to house slaves, whose sacrifice represented an important element in the development of the creole personality. As a complement, in the Garden, there are important archeological deposits of the Taino Indians that inhabited Borikén, the aborigines' name of Puerto Rico, pieces that date from pre-Columbus until the Spaniard colonization times. The Garden exhibits a rich multicultural wealth conforming the creole heritage of all cagüeños and Puerto Ricans. Combining in its own texture the Tainos, Negroes and Spaniards fibers, the Garden celebrates creolism, the sum of three races, in several of its educational zones.The Garden exhibits tropical flora in all its exuberance and variety. At the same time is home to the wildlife proper to such vegetation.

## Wild trees and shrubs (including palms and bamboos but not tree ferns)

Cecropia

«Pumpwood, Yarumo or Guarumo»

A fast growing, dioecious tree easily identified by large, palmate, 7-10 deeply lobed leaves. With the exception of some species, a typical height is between 5-15 m. Inflorescences are in green, spike-like clusters containing seeds with a gelatinous-coating. Fruits provide food for various bats, birds and other animals, who in turn spread seeds throughout the forest. These seeds will remain dormant until the right combination of sunlight and temperature initiates growth. The internodes are generally hollow,and are home to ants. This Azteca genus forms a mutualistic relationship with the tree, protecting it from foreign insects and encroaching plants. In turn, Cecropia provides shelter and food in the form of 1-2 mm, white, Mullerian bodies rich in glycogen.

It is a pioneering species, being one of the first plants to colonize disturbed or freshly cleared areas. Distribution is mainly fixed to Neotropical, humid rainforests in the Central and South Americas, plus surrounding islands like Puerto Rico. However, it has been found in such places as French Polynesia, Malaysia, and Singapore.

Bambusa

«Bamboo»

A quick growing grass of the tropics, parts of Asia, and some of Africa. From deep (~ 3 m) underground rhizomes, arise clusters of woody, hollow stems. The stem walls are very hard, containing silica in addition to dense cells composed of cellulose and lignin. Upper nodes of the plant support alternating branches with lanceolate leaves. Plant height ranges from 10-15cm in the smallest species, and up to 40 m in the largest species. All bamboos in a groove will flower at the same time. Inflorescences are arranged in a green panicle which develops at the stem tips. Sheathlike bracts enclose the flower-bearing spikelets. After wind pollination a one-seeded grain / caryopsis forms, then the plant dies. Bamboo is commonly used in the tropics as firewood, building material, pipes, plates, medicine, and instruments (flutes).

Palmae

«Palm tree»

Palms form a large, monocot family composed of shrubs and trees. This family's distribution ranges from the tropics to such areas as Africa, Florida, California, and Georgia.They are the result of an evolutionary «attempt to make a tree from a grass». Lacking secondary tissues, it was more favorable to create a thick stem and secondary roots to support the plant's weight. Many palm «trunks» are covered with dense, stiff fibers. These fibers are composed into spines at the end. Leaf arrangement is either pinnately or palmately compound. White, unisexual, individual inflorescences are enclosed within a spathe (sheathing bracts) that becomes woody when mature. The fruit, generally a drupe, consists of a fleshy ring surrounding a seed. Several uses for the palm include oils, ropes, food, and wood.

Rubiaceae

«Madder, Bedstraw, or Coffee Family»

This family consists of several herbs, trees and shrubs mainly located in the tropics. A typical stem structure involves leaves oppositely arranged and perpendicular to each other. The edge of the leaf is usually entire. Stipules are located interpetiolar. Bisexual flowers contain 4-5 of the following: stamens, corolla lobes, and calyx lobes. Inflorescences can be in a cymose position.The pistil is composed of 2 carpels. Fruit takes on many forms, such as drupes, berries, nutlets. Secondary compounds (i.e., caffeine) in the fruit protect the plant from various animals and insects. Products of Rubiaceae family include the antimalarial compound quinine, coffee, and a red dye (from Rubia tinctorum). Cephalanthus, Houstonia and Gardenia are several species that may be cultivated as ornamental plants.

Pandanus

«Screw Pine»

The screw pine belongs to a monocot genus similar in appearance to palms. Spiral leaf scar patterns are the reason or the name. They are found by marshy areas or near a coast in such places as Madagascar, Hawaii, Japan, New Zealand, Puerto Rico, and the Malay Archipelago. A unique feature involves extra support root «legs» that begin at the stem and end in the soil. Having the support allows for the tree to grow up to a height of approximately 20 m. The leaves are arranged in densely alternating ranks of three at the end of the stem. Spines along the lanceolate leaf margins and midrib make the leaves very sharp. This dioecious tree has completely different male and female flowers. Male flowers are relatively simple, only containing spikes roughly 4 inches long. Female inflorescences appear as large spathe globe, containing many different sections similar to a pineapple. Later the fruit's color changes from green to yellow as it matures. Some plants are assumed to be pollinated by the wind, however, there are some species that emit an odor. It could be a mechanism to allow flowers to be pollinated by animals and insects as well. Ropes and fabric are commonly made from the leaves, while other parts are used for building materials.

Hibiscus

«Hibiscus»

Hibiscus belong to the family Malvaceae. Their distribution ranges from tropical to warm-temperate regions.The genus is known to contain woody shrubs, small trees and a multitude of flowering plants. Leaves are lobed or toothed, organized in an alternating pattern along the stem, and contain veins that spread from the leaf base. Stipules grow beneath the leaves. The shape ranges from lanceolate to ovate. Flower color includes red, orange, purple, yellow, white or pink. Inflorescences are radially symmetrical with 5 sepals (separate or fused), 5 petals, and pollen-bearing / ovule-bearing parts. Each style is branched as many times as there are carpels. The fruit consists of a five-lobed capsule, which splits at maturity. As the flowers are considered beautiful, Hibiscus plants are mainly grown for ornamental purposes.

Clusia

«Autograph Tree, Pitch Apple, Florida Clusia, Signature Tree»

Writting on the tree leaves, by means of a fingernail or other semi sharp material, will remain until the leaf is shed. Hence the plant was given the common name of «Autograph Tree». Shrubs, vines, and small to medium trees compose the Clusia genus. Some species begin life as epiphytes that eventually kill their host. A full grown tree may be 20 m tall. Leaf margins are entire. The dark green leaves are thick, leathery and oval-shaped. Flowers come in a variety of colors, from white to greenish-white, red, yellow or pink. Inflorescences are typically arranged in a terminal/ lateral panicle and bloom for only a short time.After pollination several green, poisonous, seed capsules form. Inside the fruit are several red/orange seeds. When the fruit turns black and splits open, these seeds will be surrounded with a black material. Common ranges of this genus are in the tropical and subtropical Americas. The most interesting thing about the genus is its ability to switch between C3 and C4 photosynthesis. Carbon dioxide is used immediately in C3 photosynthetic reactions. However, C4 photosynthetic reactions store CO2 within the plant to be used at a later time with a higher temperature.

Piper

«Pepper plant»

The trees and shrubs that belong to this genus are commonly found in the lowland tropical rain forests. The fruit consists of a small, round and aromatic peppercorn when ripe. Besides being used as a cooking spice, several species are grown for ornamental purposes. Pepper also seems to have disinfectant properties and a few antibiotic properties.

Ficus

«Fig Tree»

Ficus will mainly be found in the tropics and occasionally semi-warm temperate zones. The fig covers a wide variety of plant forms such as vines, shrubs, epiphytes and trees. A unique feature of the fig tree (either the Puerto Rican Ficus elastica or Ficus retusa) is the aerial roots hanging from the treetop. These roots absorb excess moisture in the air to help transport water throughout the plant. Fruit requires a symbiotic relationship with a fig wasp to germinate. Figs are enjoyed in a variety of recipes, from Fig newtons to homemade desserts.

Spathodea

Spathodea is a monotypic genus in the flowering plant family Bignoniaceae. The single species it contains, Spathodea campanulata, is commonly known as the Fountain Tree, African Tulip Tree, Pichkari or Nandi Flame. The tree grows between 7-25 m (23-82 ft) tall and is native to tropical dry forests of Africa.

Acanthaceace

Most species in this family are grown for ornamental purposes because they often contain beautiful spiked, cyme, or raceme inflorescences. This family is a major group of angiosperms with 250 genera and roughly 2,500 species. Mostly found in tropical regions, members of this family thrive in nearly every habitat such as sea coasts, forests, swamps, and mangrove woods.

Mangifera

«Mango tree»

Belongs to the cashew family Anacardiaceae, this genus has a very well-known member, the mango. Out of the roughly 69 species, more than 27 bear edible fruit. The diversity of these trees range from subtropical and tropical regions of South East Asia and they are widely cultivated there, however, these trees are typically canopy trees in lowland forests. Mangifera trees grow between 30-40 m in length.

Rhytidophyllum

This genus is part of the Gesneriaceae family, and is native to Caribbean islands and northern South America. This family consists mostly of epiphytes with a portion being shrub/trees. Some of the trees contain beautiful green, bell-shaped flowers.

Thespesia

«Caribbean tulip tree»

Relatives to the hibiscus family, this genus contain roughly 18 shrubs/trees. Many of these trees have pink/red flowers which bloom all year around and are pollinated by hummingbirds. These trees are native to the Caribbean, Asia, Africa, and the South Pacific.

Picramnia

«Pepper tree»

This genus is hard to place in phylogeny, but is considered to be in the family of Picramniaceae. These trees are native to Brazil and other tropical regions.

Cocos

«Coconut tree, Coconut palm»

Cocos is a genus of trees belonging to the family Arecaceae. The term «coco» is derived from a Spanish/Portuguese word meaning «head» or «skull». The fruit of these trees, coconuts, have been thought to look like heads. The rough, hairy material covering the outside of coconuts is known as «copra». Cocos trees are wind pollinated and are native to tropical and subtropical regions.

Terminalia

Terminalia is a genus of plants belonging to the family Combretaceae. These plants are very common and can adapt almost anywhere. With nearly 100 species, many plants in this genus are very useful for reasons such as antifungal, antibacterial, anticancer, and aromatic properties. These plants are native to tropical regions.

Laguncularia

«White mangrove»

Laguncularia is a genus of flowering plants in the leadwood tree family, Combretaceae. These plants are native to the Caribbean, Mexico, and Bermuda. They can grow between 12-18m tall.

Coccoloba

Coccoloba is a genus in the family Polygonaceae, related to buckwheat. It is common to see these plants on sea coasts across America, often functioning as place holders for the sand. There are approximately 120- 150 species belonging to this genus, and they are native to tropical and subtropical regions of America, South America, Caribbean, and Central America.

Chrysobalanus

«Caribbean apple»

As the common name implies, this genus is native to the Caribbean. Members of this genus are evergreen perennial shrubs and small trees that attain a maximum height of 25-30 ft. Trees in this genus may contain small white flowers before giving way to apple like fruit.

## Terrestrial herbaceous plants (including liverworts, spike mosses, ferns etc.)

Lophosorium and Dicranopteris ferns

There are multiple families of ferns, and most come from the tropics and some have made it to North Dakota. They are very frequently found in Puerto Rico. Dicranopteris is a big group of tropical ferns, and are very common. They have leaves that are stem-like and can grow to be many meters long.

Younger leaves, before they mature, are in a spiral and later flatten out (see picture above). The roots on these ferns may have their roots planted further away than the leaves are as they grow towards the sunlight.

Typically on ferns there will be small brown bumps on the underside of the leaves (as shown in the picture above) and these are the sporangia (also called sori). These sporangia will immediately move to the sexual stage. These sporangia are wind dispersed and are microscopic in size.

Nepholepis

Boston Fern

The Boston Fern, also known as the sword fern, is tolerant to high sunlight and heat. This fern is a popular house plant as the sword-shaped fronds grow upwards and gracefully arch. They can grow to be several meters tall and wide. These plants prefer higher humidity and the leaves will begin to brown if there is not enough humidity and will shed its fronds if there is not enough water in the soil.

Hymenophyllaceae

Filmy fern

There are about 7 genera and approximately 600 species of this plant. They are found in tropical climates around the world and only a few have ventured to the more temperate regions. The filmy ferns have filmy, transparent leaves and are sometimes mistaken for mosses and liverworts. They only live in the wet forest in Puerto Rico as they need high humidity and precipitation to thrive. The filmy fern is a more primitive plant, and was an attempt «to make a moss out of a fern.»

Sphagnum

Peat Moss

Peat Moss grows in areas of low nutrients with almost no nitrogen content, but has a good water source. Peat moss has been used to treat wounds and burns as it has an antibacterial use. Also if needed, the water that is in peat moss can be consumed safely. Depending on the species of peat moss, they can hold 16-26 times their dry weight of water. Peat moss can help form an environment for other plants such as ericaceous shrubs along with orchids and carnivorous plants.

Lycopodium

Spike Moss

Spike moss is a vascular plant that is its own group. They are a flowerless, vascular, terrestrial, and epiphytic group that have wide-branched, upright stems. They are also an asexually reproducing plant that reproduce with sporangia; they are distributed by rhizomes that can be found above or below ground. They came before the reptiles during the Carboniferous time. They have small spiny leaves which appear needle-like but have a soft texture to the touch. This plant is good for ornamental purposes. The plant has also been used medicinally in a tea and as a compress as treatments for skin disorders. Much like the club moss, the spores can also harvested for lycopodium powder which is used as a flash powder and is used in many different areas: fireworks, pill coatings, fingerprint powders, and even ice cream stabilizer.

Huperzia

A relative of spike moss that is most commonly called a firmoss. They are referred to as a fir moss because of their appearance being similar to that of a fir tree.They have dichotomously-branched stems and grow in clusters. Each leaf of Huperzia contains a sporangium and as a plant needs a lot of humidity.

Selaginella

Club Moss

Club Moss is similar to spike moss, but they have leaves of different sizes. They are a shade plant and like high humidity. The spores of club moss used to be collected to help stop nosebleeds and other hemorrhaging as they are very absorbent. They also were used in pyrotechnics and photography as the spores are flammable and produce a bright flash when lit. Club mosses also were plants that helped produce a lot of the coal that we now mine as they were buried, compressed and then carbonized.

Hepaticae

Liverworts

Liverworts may be the first lineage of plants. They arega very simple plant and also primitive. They have a flat body which is called a thallus and have symbiotes; Blue-green algae and cyanobacteria help to improve their photosynthesis. The plants themselves are typically small being 2-20 mm wide and often less than 10 cm long. They can be found globally but are more prominent in high humidity areas, but have arctic and desert species as well. In ancient times it was thought that liverworts helped cure diseases related to the liver, this in turn helped it gain its name. Today there is little use for them, but they help reduce the amount of erosion in riverbeds.

## Vines (woody and herbaceous) and epiphytes (flowering plants only)

Arthrostylidium

Common name: Climbing Bamboo

Climbing bamboo species are distributed in the New World from Mesoamerica to South America and in the Caribbean. Climbing bamboo vines are herbs, growing in clumps. They are perennial, with pachymorph and sympodial rhizomes. Aerial stems(culms) are cylindrical, lignified, hollow, and elongated. Leaves of the culm differ from those of the branches; branches have foliage leaves or food producing organs and culm leaves have a sheath to protect new culms. Inflorescences are spike like and unbranched, flowering along the axis. Climbing bamboos have one or two bracts. Arthrostylidium belongs to the family Poaceae commonly called «grasses» or true grasses. Climbing bamboos are unique in that the vine life form is not common to their family of grasses. The vine life form may be an ancestral form of the grass family.

Allamanda

Common name: Yellow Bell or Golden Trumpet

Allamanda are native to the Americas; they are distributed from Mexico to Argentina. Plants of this genus are evergreen trees, shrubs, or vines. Some species are ornamental plants cultivated for their large, colorful flowers. Most species produce yellow flowers. They contain a white latex. The leaves are opposite or arranged in whorls of up to five. The blades are usually oval and smooth-edged, but some are leathery or lightly hairy. The inflorescence is a compound cyme. The flower has five lobed sepals and a bell or funnel shaped corolla of five petals. Allamanda cathartica is notable for its medicinal properties although all parts of the plant contain allamandin, a toxic iridoid lactone. The leaves, roots and flowers are used as a laxative and emetic in traditional medicine in a number of tropical countries. Although the milky sap is known to contain antibacterial and possibly anticancer properties, it is poisonous and ingesting large amounts can be toxic.

Mimosa

Common name: Four Valve Mimosa or Sensitive Plant

Mimosa plants are capable of rapid movement. The leaves of the plant close quickly when touched. Some mimosas raise their leaves in day and lower them at night. Leaves are alternate and bipinnate. Mimosa flowers are bisexual and have ten or fewer stamens produced in heads. What appears to be a single globular flower is actually a cluster of many individual ones. Mimosa contains some level of heptanoic acid. One of the notable species is Mimosa pudica, which folds its leaves when touched or exposed to heat. It is native to southern Central and South America, but is widely cultivated elsewhere as a houseplant and outdoors in the tropics. Outdoor cultivation has led to weedy invasion.

Marcgravia

Common name: Marcgravia

Marcgravia are native to the Caribbean Islands, Central America, and South America. Plants of this genus are terrestrial, woody, hemi-epiphytic or epiphytic vines or shrubs. Leaves are alternate and simple with dark glandular dots in the blade or the margin. Young growth is reddish colored by anthocyanins. Flowers are bisexual, terminal umbelliform racemes. The central sterile flowers are usually replaced by elongate nectaries with a cavity or pocket where nectar accumulates. There are ten or more stamens. Fruits are capsular with seeds embedded in fleshy pulp. Seeds are few to numerous and hemispherical to kidney-shaped with a shiny coat. Different pollination methods are used in the various taxa. There is a wide range of visitors including insects, lizards, birds, bats and non-flying mammals that visit the elaborate umbrella like inflorescences with the variously shaped bracteal «nectary containers».

Chromolaena

Common name: Thoroughwort

Chromolaena are erect or clambering herbs or shrubs. Stems are usually pubescent. Leaves are opposite and petiolate. They have dense flat cluster of 10-40 flowers, arranged in corymbiform cymes. Flowers are bisexual with petals arranged radially. Petals are tubular and shortly five-lobed. The lobes are usually papillose or glandular. There are five stamens present. The style is thread like, with two linear, elongated stigmatic branches. The fruit is a turbinate dry fruit with five longitudinal ribs. Members of the genus are native to the Americas, from the southern United States to South America. One species, Chromolaena odorata, has been introduced to many parts of the world where it is considered a weed. Chromolaena belongs to the aster family making it unique, because the vine life form is not common to this family.

Vanilla

Common name: Vanilla

The genus Vanilla, is found worldwide in tropical and subtropical regions. Vanilla has a monopodial climbing habitus. They form long thin stems. The leaves are short, oblong, dark green, thick and leathery and alternate down the length of the stem. Long aerial roots grow from each node. There may be up to 100 flowers on a single raceme. The flowers are large with a variety of colors from white to green. The flowers' sepals and petals are similar. The lip is tubular-shaped and surrounds the long, bristly column. The anther is at the top of the column and hangs over the stigma. Stingless bees and some hummingbirds pollinate the flowers. The fruit is termed «vanilla bean». The fruit is technically an elongate fleshy capsule. It ripens gradually and eventually turns black/brown in color. Each pod contains thousands of minute seeds; both the pods and seeds are used to create vanilla flavoring. Vanilla is the only orchid widely used in the food industry and in the cosmetic industry.

Bromeliaceae

Common name: Bromeliads

Bromeliad species are native mainly to the tropical Americas, with a few species found in the American subtropics. Bromeliads are adapted to a number of climates. Approximately half the species are epiphytes. Foliage takes different shapes, from needle-thin to broad and flat, symmetrical to irregular, spiky to soft. The foliage grows in a rosette and is widely patterned and colored. Varieties may have leaves with red, yellow, white and cream variations. Some may be spotted with purple, red, or cream, while others may have different colors on the tops and bottoms of the leaves. Bromeliad inflorescences are diverse. Upright stalks may be branched or simple with spikes. Epiphytic bromeliads only grow hard, wiry roots to attach themselves to trees and rocks. Bromeliads include terrestrial species, such as the pineapple. Many bromeliads are able to store water in a structure formed by their tightly-overlapping leaf bases. A wide variety of organisms takes advantage of the pools of water trapped by bromeliads including some species of ostracods, small salamanders, and tree frogs.

Araceae

Common name: Arum Family

Araceae is best developed in tropical and subtropical regions and is very common in tropical forests and wetland. Araceae is a family of monocotyledonous flowering plants in which flowers are borne on a type of inflorescence called a spadix. Arums can be epiphytic. Species in Araceae are often rhizomatous or tuberous and are often found to contain calcium oxalate crystals or raphides. The leaves can vary from species to species. The inflorescence is composed of a spadix, which is usually surrounded by a modified leaf called a spathe. Aroids may be monoecious or dioecious. Many plants in this family are heat producing plants, which attracts insects to pollinate the plant. Genera such as Alocasia, Arisaema, Caladium, Colocasia, Dieffenbachia, and Philodendron contain calcium oxalate crystals in the form of raphides. If these crystals are consumed, they may cause edema, vesicle formation, dysphagia and painful stinging and burning to the mouth and throat.

Orchidaceae

Common name: Orchid family

All orchids are perennial herbs that lack any permanent woody structures and can be monopodial or sympodial. A majority of orchids are perennial epiphytes, which grow anchored to trees or shrubs in the tropics and subtropics. Epiphytic orchids have modified aerial roots that can sometimes be a few meters long. Orchids generally have simple leaves with parallel veins. Leaves may be ovate, lanceolate, or orbiculate, and variable in size. Some orchids have single flowers, but most have a racemose inflorescence, sometimes with a large number of flowers. The flowering stem can be basal, apical or axillary. Flowers are primitively bilaterally symmetrical and have two or three stamens. The world's richest concentration of orchid varieties is found in the tropics, mostly Asia, South America and Central America. The underground tubers of terrestrial orchids are full of a highly nutritious starch-like substance, called bassorin, which has a sweetish taste and replaces starch as a reserve material used for cooking.

Gesneriaceae

Common name: African Violet Family

Many species have colorful and showy flowers and are cultivated as ornamental plants. Most species are perennial herbs or subshrubs, but a few are epiphytic vines, woody shrubs or small trees. The leaves are usually arranged opposite and decussate, but leaves in some groups may have a spiral or alternate arrangement. Flowers have a zygomorphic corolla whose petals are fused into a tube. Most gesneriads have an unusual inflorescence structure, the «pair-flowered cyme». The fruit is a dry or fleshy capsule or a berry. The seeds are small and numerous. The family name is based on the genus Gesneria, which honors Swiss humanist Conrad Gessner. Several genera in the family have become popular as houseplants. The most familiar members of the family to gardeners are the African Violets in the genus Saintpaulia. Gesneriads are among the easiest plants to propagate. This is one reason for their immense popularity. From even the smallest cutting, it is possible to grow another plant. Gesneria pauciflora is a rare species of flowering plant in the family Gesneriaceae. It is endemic to Puerto Rico, where there are only three populations remaining.

## Cultivated plants

The Allspice (Pimenta dioica) tree is most well-known in Jamaica because they grow it to sell the wood, leaves and berries so people can use them to add extra flavor to barbequed meats or to make spices from them. In Jamaica, they refer to this tree as «Pimento» in reference to the name Spanish explorers when they first encountered it in Mexico during the 16th Century. Although it is most well-known in Jamaica, the tree did not originally come from there. It's actually native to the West Indies, Southern Mexico and Central America. The English version «allspice» pertains to the smell produced by the berries and leaves because it smells like nutmeg, cinnamon and pepper. The allspice leaves and berries have been used to make perfumes, cosmetics and medicine.

The Ylang Ylang (Cananga odorata) tree grows natively in the rainforests from Southeast Asia to Australia. However, it has been cultivated all over the world because its yellow flowers are a key ingredient in the popular «Channel No. 5» perfume so there is a very high demand for this tree. It grows extremely fast so the Ylang Ylang tree has also been used to regenerate parts of the rainforest that are dwindling down to no plants. While the tree does grow smelly yellow flowers that are important to humans, it also produces clusters of green fruits that ripen into black fruits that serve as an important source of food for birds and bats as well.

The Traveller's (Ravenala madagascariensis) tree is also referred to the Madagascar tree. It is a fan palm which is easy to remember because the top of the tree looks like a giant fan. This tree is called the Traveller»s tree/palm because in the case of an emergency where there»s no water around, a person can puncture the leaves and there is water stored in them that you can purify and drink. This tree, Ravenala madagascariensis, is the only member of the genus Ravenala. However, it is in the same family as the banana tree. Although the plant has been widely cultivated in tropical and subtropical regions, it is native to Madagascar originally.

The Kapok (Ceiba pentandra) tree is a tree that has many uses. These trees can grow very very tall, sometimes up to 230 feet and they have giant roots as well that can be taller than a grown adult. The Kapok tree is the most cultivated and best known tree of this genus. There is a Kapok tree in the southern part of Puerto Rico that is said to be 500 years old and is associated with the founding of the city «Ponce.» These trees live to be quite old and are said to be an important part in the mythologies of pre-Columbian Mesoamerican cultures. The Amazonian tribes of eastern Peru believed deities lived in Ceiba tree species throughout the jungle. Fibers produced by the Kapok tree were formerly used to fill mattresses, pillows, tapestries and dolls; however, they have recently been replaced in all these items by synthetic fibers. The Ceiba tree see is still used to extract oils used to make soap and fertilizers though.

The cacao (Theobroma cacao) tree is what we like to think of as «The Chocolate Tree.» It produces pods on the trunk of the tree that are pollinated by ants to make seeds that are filled with fatty matter, caffeine, nitrogen and theobromine... all of these things that will later be turned into chocolate. Although the tree is native to tropical regions of Central and South America, today the biggest producers of this tree include: the Ivory Coast, Ghana, Nigeria and Indonesia. Humans have been eating cacao-based foods produced by the seeds of this tree for at least 3,500 years now dating back to the time the Olmec people of Mexico first ingested the seeds from this tree. The Aztec people called the seeds cacahuatl and then the Spaniards took those seeds back to Europe in the 16th century and added sugars, cinnamon and milk to make the bitter seeds taste better. After that, chocolate became one of the best things around to eat and still is today.

The Persea is a genus of about 150 species of evergreen trees that belong to the family Lauraceae. The most well-known member of the genus is the avocado, which also happens to be the tree that we saw. Persea trees are not originally grown in Puerto Rico; however, they are cultivated there and other subtropical regions quite frequently because there is a high demand for their large edible fruit. They originally grew in what was known as Gondwana and migrated to South America via Antarctica over ocean landbridges by Paleocene time. Nowadays they have been grown all over the world except regions where the weather gets incredibly cold (like North Dakota) and regions that do not have a lot of rain. Persea trees are pollinated by bees and the avocados they produce are used in many different foods.

The Achiote (Bixa orellana) tree is cultivated very frequently in Puerto Rico, Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, India, Jamaica, Mexico, Peru and the Dominican Republic because it is the best known source of the natural pigment annatto. Annatto comes from the fruit this tree bears that contain little red seeds inside each one of them. This dye is then used for many religious and traditional purposes in the above listed countries.

The Breadfruit (Artocarpus altilis) tree is a flowering tree that originally grows in Southeast Asia and most Pacific Ocean Islands. Its name comes from the texture of the cooked fruit that has a flavor similar to freshly baked bread. About 3,500 years ago, Polynesian people found the trees growing in New Guinea, gave up the rice cultivating they were doinggup until that point and started growing breadfruit trees no matter where they lived in the Pacific after that. Breadfruit trees can produce up to 200 fruits (they look similar to a pineapple) per season making them one of the highest-yielding food plants in that region.

The Citrus (Citrus spp.) tree is believed to have originated from Australia, New Caledonia and New Guinea. However, the fruits that citrus trees produce have been cultivated all over the world since ancient times. Citrus fruits and plants are known by the word «agrumes» which literally means «sour fruits.» Lemons are the only citrus fruit that can be commercially grown in cooler-summer/moderate-winter regions like Southern California because sweetness is not expected in the retail of lemons.

The Calabash (Crescentia) tree is native to Southern North America, the Caribbean, Central American and Northern South America. These trees do not grow to be very big; however, they produce large spherical fruits that have a thin but hard shell full of soft pulp. The fruits from the tree can grow to be up to ten inches in diameter. After harvested, the pulp in the fruits can be used to treat respiratory problems and the shells of the fruits can be used for containers or cups.

## Birds and mammals

Red-Fruit Bat, Sternoderma rufum

The red-fruit bats are also known as the fig-eating bat. These species are only found in Puerto Rico and U.S. Virgin Islands but haven»t been spotted or recorded in the U.S. Virgin Islands for last 30 years. They are natives to the two islands and prefer a habitat within the tropical or subtropical forests. Their main resource for food is fruits from palm trees, bullet-wood, and trumpet trees. These bats can measure relatively small and lives on the leaves of forest canopy. Despite their name, there is no evidence that they consume fig fruit. We spotted them multiple times in the El Yunque Forest at night.

Indian Mongoose, Herpestes javanicus

Also known as small Asian Mongoose, these mongooses are common terrestrial mammal in El Yunque Forest. We have spotted them multiple times hiking throughout the forest and at the campsites. They are about 9-25 inches in length (including tail) and have grayish brown furs. They are skillful climbers and lives in hollow logs or trees or holes in the ground. They can be infected with rabies so there are warning signs throughout the forest area. They are not native to the island. They were first brought to Puerto Rico from Malay Peninsula in 1877 to control the black rat (also immigrants, brought by ships from Europe on Columbus era) infestation of sugar plantation.

Great Blue Heron (White Phase), Ardea herodias

They are the largest heron in the region and the common name is Garzon blanco from its color. They are encountered in almost any salt or fresh water. We spotted a few at the Humacao Swamp Forest where the salt water and fresh water meets. They hunt their resources which are crabs, frogs, scorpions, spiders, snakes, birds, and fish by standing motionless waiting for the meal to come by. They cry similar like a large frog «guarrrr» and distributed throughout West Indies, North, Central, and South America. About 70% of the new born dies within the first year.

Puerto Rican Lizard Cuckoo, Coccyzus vieilloti

This bird is unique by having a long, quite astonishing looking tail. They are about 16-19 inches in length and has gray on chin and breast with a hint of cinnamon on its belly. They are common in North Coast of the island, coffee plantations, and mountain areas with thick forest. They hunt small lizards just like its name, spiders and insects. Common name in local is Pajarode agua, which means the water bird for believed to forecast rain. They are 1 out of the 4 species of lizard cuckoo only on Caribbean Islands. They have a unique way of hunting, similar to the Herons; by keeping the body still and motionless until the prey come near then strike its prey. We have spotted one of them in the dry forest.

American Coot, Fulica americana

These coots are about 15-16 inches in length, all black body with white bills and a unique bright red forehead. The difference between the Caribbean coot and the American coot is the distinct red forehead. They are very common in Puerto Rico and uncommon in Virgin Islands but vice versa for Caribbean coots. They often reside in open fresh water areas and wide spread throughout the Western hemisphere. We have spotted them at the Humacao Swamp Forest.

Rock Dove, Columba livia

They are the common doves also known as the pigeons in the cities. They are more colorful than the native pigeons and abundant to rural areas of Puerto Rico. They nest on buildings, bridges, and palms of trees. They originated from Europe, North Africa, and West Asia and they are so common that the estimated count is about 17-28 million just in Europe! They may also harbor a diverse parasite fauna so must be warned. I have seen lots of them in San Juan.

Puerto Rican Night Jar, Antrostomus nocititherus

They are also known as the «prehistoric birds» because they were extinct for years. They are stable now as long as the predators are controlled such as mongoose, rats, and cats. They live around South Western Puerto Rico and known to be very small and fast and low flying birds. We have spotted them couple times at El Yunque Forest. Unfortunately, about 5 % of the population of these birds suffers from accidental death by collision with wind turbines.

Merlin, Falco columbarius

Also known as the Pigeon Hawks, they are about 9-12 inches in body and wing span of 21-27 inches. They have a short, dark colored beak and relatively medium size in hawks. The males are colorful than the females with blue-grey body and orange streaks and females with brown-green to dark brown feathers. They are migrating birds who migrates to Central/South America and Caribbean during winter and during their breeding season, from May-June, in the U.S and Canada. They are fast flying birds that rely on speed for hunting. They prefer the forestland, grassland, mangrove swamps and seacoasts of Puerto Rico. We spotted a few flying over our heads in the dry forest.

Puerto Rican Emerald, Chlorostilbon maugalus

They are species from the humming bird family that are endemic to Puerto Rico only. They fly in midair by rapidly flapping its wings (like bees) that beat 50 times per second. They are the only bird species which are capable of flying backwards! It is hard to spot them because of their relatively small size, 3.5-5 inches in length only and weighs ~0.1 ounce. They are very colorful and females and males are distinguished by the color. Males are green with black tail and females with white breast and white tinted tails. They consume nectar by probing the flower stamen using their long bills and tubular tongues. They are very important pollinators for deep throated flowers. They eat small insects as well. They reside in Northwestern Mountain and Southwestern coasts of Puerto Rico. We have spotted them once on a tree at a nearby gas station in Parguera sea coast.

## Amphibians and reptiles

The Puerto Rican coqui frog is one amphibian native to Puerto Rico that we encountered while we camped in the El Yunque National Forest. We, more so, encountered its sound then the actual species itself. It makes a «ko-kee» sound that is hard to miss. There are sixteen different species of the coqui frog native to Puerto Rico,which because of this, they make majority of the fauna of amphibians in Puerto Rico. The other amphibian that is common to Puerto Rico is the common toad or Bufo marinus. The genus of Eleutherodactylus is represented of the coqui species. They do not have a tadpole stage, but instead, they have a froglet stage that emerges from the egg resembling a smaller version of the adult. You can identify these species by two different categories, lowland and highland forms. The frog that we mostly heard while camping in the forest was the Eleutherodactylus coqui. These interesting frogs have a unique reason at the sound they make. Each syllable of their sound co-qui has different functions. The «co» is the vocal interactions with other male frogs and the «qui» is the actual mating call to attract its mate. The sound as a whole «coqui» is the message to both sexes, but based on repetition rate, intensity, and modifications of the sound will carry different messages. In the El Yunque Forest, the average distance for calling males is about 12 feet. Once the female is attracted to one of the male calls, she takes the initiative, and is later followed to lay eggs in a refuge. This refuge could be a bromeliad, branches on a fern, or a nest of small birds.

One of the most primitive species of Anolis that is native to Puerto Rico is the Anolis occultus or commonly known as the dwarf anole. The other primitive species is the giant anoles. These critters weren't discovered by science until 1963 which is the reason for the name «occultus.» They can be found in the Mariacao Reserve, El Yunque, El Verde and the Sierra de Cayey. They are long and slender to a length of 34 mm with a tapered snout and short limbs and tail. They vary in coloration which can be white, gray, olive brown, yellowish green or dirty orange. They are unique to other Anolis species because they are almost identical in both sexes and may be also monogamous. They can be found in the forest canopy, and when there's a break in the canopy they can be found on the forest floors. They sleep on twigs or vines with their tail wrapping around on the perch. The wrapping of the tail makes the identification easy when collecting at night, and when they grasp it may emit a squeaking sound.

The most common anole that is seen most frequently and are found in households in Puerto Rico is the Anolis cristatellus cristatellus, commonly known as the Puerto Rican crested anole. They vary in coloration from brown to greenish gray with some having dark spots on their dorsal side. Their ventral side is primarily white, but can be yellow to yellowish. The crested anole can be found on branches on the forest floor. Mostly at night they can be found under rocks or sleeping on leaves. They eat spiders and small invertebrates, and may eat other anoles if food is scarce. The crested anole mostly spends its time in trees for protection, and if threatened by predators, they extend their dewlap and run away.

The Puerto Rican sharp mouthed lizard is found abundantly in Puerto Rico in grassland areas. They belong to the genus Anolis and their scientific name is Anolis pulchellus. They are also named as the garden lizard and can be identified by their yellowish brown or brownish gray color. An interesting fact in a space of 10,000 square meters there may be 20,000-25,000 lizards. They can be known for their large numbers and when the grass is trampled they will scurry in hordes. These lizards almost always prefer grasses, but can be found in low brushes and plants. They cannot be found on trees. They sleep on twigs and blades of grass with their body perched, head close to the perch, forelimbs flexed, and hind limbs extended posteriorly. When they are disturbed, they will move to the other side of the twig, but still maintaining the sleeping position. They can swim by undulation of their body and can stop midway without their body penetrating the water's surface.

The Anolis cuvieri is the only lizard of the Anolis genus to be the largest found in Puerto Rico. They are commonly known as the Puerto Rican giant anole. This species has two color phases. The most common color phase is more vibrant than the other phase. The common color phase is described with its body, tail, and extremities to be emerald green or yellowish green with its head blue in color. The other color phase is gray or greenish gray with dark brown spots. Both phases consist of the eyes, dewlap, and tongue with a yellow coloration. Both sexes have dewlaps, but the males have larger dewlaps and can be identified also with a higher tail crest. They are about five inches from snout to vent. Apart from length, they can be identified by their large bony head, uniformity of head scales, and fringed dorsal scales. This species, also known as the «lagarto verde,» has a superstition that if bitten by one it won't release its hold until it thunders or until a black cow moos. After being bitten, they also say that to escape from poisoning, that person must cross three rivers immediately. The truth is the teeth are only long enough to penetrate the skin, but its bite clings to the skin and its jaws may need to be pried to dislodge the lizard's mouth.

Another species of the Sphaerodactylus genus is Sphaerodactylus klauberi commonly known as the Puerto Rican Upland gecko. This species is the darkest in color of all Sphaerodactylus and most altitudinal in which they have been found at altitudes of 3,800 feet. The Upland gecko is dark brown with black to dark color flecks. Flecks are more abundant towards the hind end and tail of the species. Usually, there is a black spot on the nape and pale lines on the side. On the ventral side, they are usually orange or reddish pink with the throat typically gray. They can be found under rocks, leaves, logs, and trash. Like the other genus Sphaerodactylus, these geckos are voiceless, females lay only one large hard shelled egg, and are insectivores. They are secretive and mostly active at night.

The Green Iguana is very common to Puerto Rico. They are also common to South and Central America. They were first introduced to Puerto Rico as escaped pets from importation by pet stores. Its scientific name is Iguana iguana and they can reach up to a size of six feet. They vary in coloration from green to grayish green with gray following towards a yellowish orange in the flanks. Their back and flanks have dark bar markings. They are agile swimmers and can be found in trees and on the ground. They are mostly vegetarians, but have been known to eat eggs, young birds, and carrion. They are known in some areas to be a nuisance to plantations and crops. The eggs of the iguana require high incubation temperatures, so the females look for clearings in the forest and sand beaches that are well exposed to the sun. They lay 17-68 eggs and they return to their birth site for nesting. Their nesting is a complex tunneling system that is one meter deep and 20 meters in length used for communication. In attracting a mate or other social interactions, iguanas use a «head bob» and dewlap. Iguanas thrive at temperatures between 79-95 degrees Fahrenheit. Their bodies need UVA and UVB lighting and if deprived results in metabolic bone disease, a lacking of vitamin D.

The Puerto Rican ground lizard is the most common and has the widest distribution. They can found on the coasts of Puerto Rico, Culebra, and the Virgin Islands. In Puerto Rico, their distribution extends inland from Utuado, at an elevation of 1,100 feet between Patillas and San Lorenzo and near an elevation of 1,200 feet by Caguas. Its scientific name is Ameiva exsul. Its coloration on its dorsal side is olive to olive brown with scattered dots or spots. Its flanks are marked either dark brown or black with longitudinal white spots. Their color pattern changes with age. There are variations of this species on the island of Puerto Rico. The femoral pores are greater in specimens from west to east along the north coast. While, the pre-anal scales are more numerous in specimens in the southern part. Reproduction is not fully known with this particular species, but the males are larger and more dominate and pursue the smaller ones sometimes even consuming them. The females lay no more than two eggs and they are pinkish white in color.

## Fishes of the coral reef

Rainbow Parrot fish (Scarus guacamaia)

This fish is considered near threatened by The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). They live in coral reefs, mangroves and sea grass beds in the Caribbean, Bahamas, Bermuda and Florida. These fish can live up to a depth of between 10 and 80 feet. They are considered one of the largest of the Scaridae family reaching between 1.5 to 5 feet long.

Redband Parrot fish (Sparisoma aurofrenatum)

These fish inhabit the areas of the Caribbean, Bahamas, Florida, Bermuda and Gulf of Mexico. They can grow between 6 to 10 inches in length. They are solitary or found in small groups and may be found resting on the bottom of the ocean floor. They are herbivores, feeding on algae and polyps that they scrape from rocks and coral using their 'beak»». When swimming through the reefs it will only use its pectoral fins but when it wants to move quickly and suddenly it will then utilize its tail.

Blue Parrotfish (Scarus coeruleus)

In summer, blue parrotfish gather in spawning groups. Fertilization takes place and the females deposit their eggs into the water column after which they sink to the seabed. The eggs hatch after about twenty-five hours. They are uniformly blue with a yellow spot on their heads that fades as they age. They average 30-75 cm in length with a maximum length of 1.2 m. They develop a large «beak» like other parrotfish that is used for scraping algae and small organisms from rocks. They have pharyngeal teeth that grind ingested rocks into sand. No other species has this uniform blue color as adults. The blue parrotfish is a member of the parrotfish genus Scarus. Blue parrotfish are found on coral reefs at depths of 3-25 m (9-82 ft.) in the western Atlantic from Maryland in the United States to Bermuda, the Bahamas, and south to Brazil. They are also found throughout the West Indies but are absent from the northern part of the Gulf of Mexico. Juveniles are found in beds of turtle grass.

Blackbar soldierfish (Myripristis jacobus)

These fish inhabit the regions of the Western Atlantic, Bahamas, Northern Gulf of Mexico, West Indies, the Caribbean Sea, Cape Verde, Principe, Ascension, and St. Helena islands. They prefer deeper waters and are a nocturnal species. They mainly eat plankton.

Bluehead wrasse (Thalassoma bifasciatum)

Native to the coral reefs of the tropical waters of the western Atlantic Ocean these individuals are small (less than 110 mm standard length) and rarely live longer than two years. Their main range includes the Caribbean Sea and the southeast area of the Gulf of Mexico. They form large schools over the reef and are important cleaner fish in the reefs they inhabit. They can rapidly alter the presence or intensity of their yellow color, stripes, and bars, and these color changes appear to correspond to behavioral changes The bluehead wrasse forages for zooplankton, mollusks, and other small crustaceans, as well as parasites on other fish The bluehead wrasse is widespread in the northwestern Atlantic region and is one of the most abundant species in coral reefs near Puerto Rico,

Four-eyed butterfly fish (Chaetodon capistratus)

This species is found in the Western Atlantic from Massachusetts, USA and Bermuda to the West Indies and northern South America. Chaetodon capistratus is the type species of Chaetodon. Four-eyed butterflyfish usually frequent shallow inshore waters, where they feed on a variety of invertebrates, mainly zoantharians, polychaete worms, gorgonians and tunicates. The black circle on their back is used to distract predators. They mate for life.

Blue tang (Paracanthurus hepatus)

One of over 70 species of surgeonfish, the blue tang lives in coastal waters, coral reefs and inshore rocky or grassy areas between 6-131 feet deep. Adults average 12 inches in length and live singly, in pairs or sometimes in groups as large as 10-12. The blue tang feeds on algae. These fish reach sexual maturity at 9-12 months of age.

Glass eye snapper (Heteropriacanthus cruentatus)

These fish reach 7 to 10 in. in length and live in areas that are 15-50 ft. deep. They are a member of the Bigeye or Priacanthidae Family; The Glasseye Snappers reside over and within rocky bottoms at depths up to 1,000 feet. They reach a maximum length of 50 cm (20 inches). They are reported to be nocturnal feeders. They are a poorly studied species and as such there is very limited information available about their behavioral patterns. They are one of the very few fish found in Mexican waters of both the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans.

Blue hamlet (Hypoplectrus gemma)

The blue hamlet is a tropical fish native to the Western Central Atlantic, including southern Florida, the Florida Keys, the Bahamas and the Arrecife Alacranes of Mexico. It is not found outside of this region. They are typically a shy species, preferring to hide among rocks or hover near the substrate. They can grow to 13cm in length.

Indigo hamlet (Hypoplectrus indigo)

An indigo hamlet is a fish of the genus Hypoplectrus that is found mainly in coral reefs in the Caribbean Sea and the Gulf of Mexico, particularly around Florida and the Bahamas. They are a popular choice for hobbyist saltwater aquariums, and come in a variety of colors. There are eleven described species. They have both male and female sexual organs at the same time as an adult.

Queen Angelfish (Holacanthus ciliaris)

Found near coral reefs in warmer waters. The queen angelfish feeds primarily on sponges, but also feeds on tunicates, jellyfish, and corals as well as plankton and algae Queen Angelfish inhabit reefs and are common near Florida especially the Florida Keys, the Bahamas, and the Gulf of Mexico. The adults are found in pairs year round, indicating that they are a monogamous fish.

## Terrestrial invertebrates

Gaeotis flavolineata

This species is actually a semi-slug. It is called a semi-slug because it is halfway between a snail and a slug because it's shell is reduced or diminished. We saw a lot of these slugs while we were sitting around our campfire. We saw them on bamboo and under palm fronds. This semi-slugs shell is actually covered by its mantle, which explains the strange appearance of it's back that we noticed while we were observing them by the fire. These semi-slugs are nocturnal, hermaphroditic, and can eat up to half their own weight in a single night.

Tree Snail (English), Caracol (Spanish), Caracolus caracolla (Scientific name), native species Puerto Rico.

This snail has a flat shell and two pairs of tentacles. The larger pair on top is for their eyes and the smaller pair on the bottom is for smelling and feeling. We saw them all over the El Yunque national forest. They like a moist climate so they stay undercover when it is dryer than they like, such as under tree leaves and stuff. When it rains they crawl all over the forest floor. They are fairly large snails too, the average size is 3»-4» shell diameter.

Coenobita clypeatus -- hermit crab

The Caribbean tree crab. Also known as a hermit crab. Hermit crabs only have an exoskeleton on the front half of their body. The back half of their body is soft and vulnerable, this is why they wear the shells of other animals. Hermit crabs are social animals and often live in large groups. They recede into their shell fully if it fits correctly, and they are always on a hunt for a better shell to call their home.

Pepsis sp. (Pompilidae family) -- spider wasp

This wasp can curl and uncurl its antennae. Not all wasps can. It is a shiny metallic blue and it has copper colored antennae. They will find spiders, sting them to paralyze them, bring them back to their nests and lay eggs in them. The larvae will eventually hatch and eat the spider.

Apis mellifera -- honey bee

This bee is very common almost everywhere. These bees live in hives and collect nectar from flowers to make honey and in doing so they typically pollinate the flowers also. bees like these live in hives in a hierarchy. there is a queen and many worker bees. every bee has a role in maintaining the colony.

Pyrophorus pellucens -- click beetle

Click beetles get their name from the sharp clicking sound they make when they are on their back and they sharply bend their back to fling themselves into the air and flip themselves over. This genus is also bioluminescent. Similar to fireflies, the difference is however that fireflies light only stays on in pulses trying to attract a mate. This click beetle's light stays on steadily as it flies. We saw many of these at night, but we thought they were lightning bugs. Then we noticed that the light stayed on continuously so we weren't sure what they were. Now we know.

Scarabaeidae -- scarab beetle

Scarabs feed on a variety of roots and foliage. In Egypt scarabs were buried with mummies. In some species the males have horns for fighting. This is a very general type of beetle. There are many different species in this genera. We had one visit our campsite twice in the night attracted to our lamp light.

Polistes sp. -- paper wasp

These wasps are yellow and brown. Their wings fold back and they chew up plant material and turn it into a kind of paper that they can make their hives out of. These wasps can live in colonies or on their own, they may also even have a queen and workers. They live in a wide variety of ways.

Order Isoptera -- termites

Most Caribbean termites build their nests in round shapes in the trees they feed on wood and don't like the sunlight so they make tunnels on the tree trunks and branches so they won't be exposed to sunlight. Termites have intestinal protozoa that transform the cellulose into glucose for them.

## Invertebrates of the coral reef

Strombus gigas

Queen Conch:

A large gastropod mollusk, with a spiral shaped shell, which has a glossy pink or orange interior. They can grow to 1 foot in length, weigh up to 5 pounds, achieve full size in 5 years, and live up to 40 years. They live in warm shallow water in sand, sea grass beds, and coral reefs. They range from the Gulf of Mexico to the Western Atlantic from Bermuda to Brazil. They primarily feed on algae and detritus and reproduce through internal fertilization. Females lay long egg masses that contain hundreds of thousands of eggs. Eggs will hatch after 5 days and larvae spend up to 40 days floating and feeding on plankton before metamorphosing into adults. Their population is an increasing concern as they are frequently harvested for food and their shells.

Acropora cervicornis

Staghorn Coral:

This coral is found in the Caribbean Sea, Western Gulf of Mexico, and the Western Altantic Ocean from Florida to Venezuela. It has been designated as critically endangered in Florida, Puerto Rico, St. John, St. Thomas, and St. Croix. Its common name comes from its resemblance to male deer antlers. Branches can grow to over 6.5 feet. The primary mode of reproduction is asexual fragmentation with new colonies forming when branches break off and colonies reattach to another substrate. Sexual reproduction can occur with the spawning of gametes into the water column once a year. The larvae live for several days until finding an area to settle and then metamorphose into new colonies. Genetic diversity is very low due to asexual fragmentation which makes this coral better adapted to recover from physical disturbances like storms. This adaptation also makes them less robust to disease. White band disease is the main factor for this coral being critically endangered. Like most coral, they have symbiotic organisms called zooxanthellae. They obtain their energy mostly from photosynthesis with these symbionts, but can catch small fish and zooplankton with tentacles. You can count the age of this coral by counting its rings like a tree.

Ophiocoma echinata

Blunt-Spined Brittle Star:

This brittle star is found in the Western Atlantic from Florida to Brazil and the Caribbean Sea. They have five-segment radial symmetry, 5 arms jointed to a central body disk. Their movement is due to a water vascular system and tube feet attached to the 5 arms. They have a calcium carbonate skeleton and do gas exchange for respiration through bursae near their arm joints. They mostly feed on plankton and detritus. They live in dark spaces under coral, rubble, inside sponges, and multiple individuals may live side by side. Reproduction occurs through external fertilization. Separate sexes shoot streams of gametes to mix and form zygotes. The fertilized eggs develop into larvae and metamorphosis is complete after a few weeks. They have the ability to purposefully shed an arm to confuse predators, can live up to 5 years, and can regenerate lost arms or segments unless all arms are lost.

Cassiopea xamachana

Upside Down Jelly, Mangrove Jelly:

This jelly is sedentary for the majority of its lifecycle, although it can move via the typical jelly undulation style of locomotion. They can appear green or blue in color because of their symbiotic zooxanthellae. They occur in the Florida Keys, the Caribbean Sea, and lie on the bottom of inshore bays, sandy mudflats, and inshore shallow mangroves. Males will release gametes into the water and females will collect them for fertilization. There is a complex reproductive cycle consisting of sessile polyp stages, mobile medusa, alteration between asexual budding of polyps, immature ephyra, and fully mature reproducing medusa. Nutrients are mostly provided by their symbionts which live on their tentacles. This is why the jelly must remain inverted and close to the surface. These tentacles still have the ability to sting and they can also feed on plankton and zooplankton for additional nutrition.

Gorgonia ventalina

Common Sea Fan:

Found throughout the Western Atlantic Ocean and the Caribbean Sea, the Sea Fan is a colonial coral with a latticework of linking branches. The skeleton is composed of calcite and a collagen-like compound called gorgonion. Each polyp extends eight tentacles to catch plankton, and is symbiotic with a dinoflagellate. This symbiont is photosynthetic and provides organic compounds to the fan. Reproduction occurs externally with egg and sperm being released in large quantities into the water. This increases the distance of their distribution, although asexual reproduction is possible. They commonly occur in white, yellow, pale purple, and grow at right angles to the current to assist in filter feeding.

Bispira brunnea

Social Feather Duster:

This is an aquatic worm that lives in clusters. The portion of the animal you see is the crown which consists of ciliated feather shaped radioles that trap particles. Their food consists of bacteria, detritus, particulate organic matter, phytoplankton, and other microorganisms. Their feeding is assisted by water currents and this species is common in the Caribbean Sea. This species sexually reproduces externally and free swimming larvae settle and produce their calcareous tube for protection. Their radioles are sensitive to water movement. When they feel threatened they retract into their tubes closing it with an operculum which resembles a trap door. These worms can occur in a spiral shape and were the inspiration for some of the plants in the movie Avatar.

Astichopus multifidus

Furry Sea Cucumber:

The only species in its genus, the Furry Sea Cucumber is native to the Caribbean Sea, and ranges from the southern tip of Florida southwards to Venezuela in the Western Atlantic Ocean. This soft bodied sea cucumber is fast growing with a maximum length of 16 inches. The tube feet on its dorsal surface extend into fleshy conical projections about 1 cm in length. It spends most of the day buried in the sand and feeds at night on large quantities of sediment that it extracts organic matter from as it passes through its gut. It can move very quickly in relation to other sea cucumbers at 6 feet per minute. Its locomotion can be crawling, rolling, and a quicker bounding movement. Its entire dorsal and ventral sides are covered in hundreds of these tube feet giving it a «furry» feel to the touch.

Condylactis gigantean

Giant Caribbean Sea Anemone:

The Giant Anemone is found in the Caribbean Sea and the Western Atlantic Ocean. This anemone is usually found in shallow water in crevices of rocks, shells, or corals. It has a commensal relationship with several fish and shrimp species by providing them shelter. They can be observed as stations for fish cleaning activity. They occur in varying colors such as yellow and purple. Reproduction is sexually external with eggs and sperm synchronously being released into the water. This produces a larval stage which derives nutrients from a yolk and allows for longer dispersal and survival of the larva. When the larva settle they morph into a pedal disc which grows into mature adults. They are mostly solitary and do not occur in close proximity to other anemones. Like most anemone they have nematocysts which contain a toxin that is painful and causes paralysis. This anemone is a microphagous carnivore and commonly feeds on fish, mussels, and shrimp. After the anemone stings its prey, it becomes paralyzed, then it is carried to the mouth, swallowed whole, and digested. The nematocysts help in capturing food as well as defense against predators like hermit crabs.

Isostichopus badionotus

Three-rowed Sea cucumber, Cookie Dough Sea Cucumber:

This sea cucumber can be found in the Western Atlantic Ocean and the Caribbean Sea. It is a large species that grows to around 45 centimeters and has dark colored bumps that grow in rows on its dorsal surface. Its body can range from orange to brown and has a ventrally located mouth with about 20 tentacles. It can be found in reefs, sandy rubble, and grass beds from around 3-25 meters in depth. It has no concealment during the day and remains exposed at all times. They feed by taking in sediment, digesting the organic matter, detritus, and also grind sediment into smaller particles. Their predators are fish, however, predation is low due to the toxins found in their body walls. They sexually externally reproduce during spawning events which occur throughout the year, but more commonly during warmer times. Some species of sea cucumbers are commonly produced in fisheries for Asian food markets. This species is not commonly differentiated in trade reports so increased fishery management was started in 2002.

Diadema antillarum

Long-Spined Sea urchin, Lime Urchin, Black Sea Urchin:

This sea urchin occurs in the Western Atlantic Ocean, Gulf of Mexico, and the Caribbean Sea. They occur at depths of 3-30 feet on coral reefs. They commonly lodge themselves in crevices with only their spines protruding. The spines of this species are usually 10-12 centimeters but can be as long as 30. This species is the most abundant, widespread, and important of the shallow water sea urchins. The importance of this herbivore comes from its main food source, algae, which can otherwise overgrow and smother coral. These urchins reproduce externally in spawning events which have been observed to be synchronized by the lunar cycle.

Protists:

Pyridium bahamense

Dinoflagellates of Bio Bay:

These organisms are a type of phytoplankton that occur in tropical waters across the world. Dense blooms of the highly bioluminescent organisms occur under specific conditions. A unique combination of salt in the water, local climate, depth of the water, as well as air and water pollution allows for varying densities of this single celled organism. Densities in La Parguera Bay can be upwards of 720,000 single-celled bioluminescent dinoflagellates per gallon of water. They are not the only bioluminescent organisms in Puerto Rican waters, but they are the main source. Although they are less than 1/500th of an inch, the brief illumination caused by agitation may make them appear larger to their predators, zooplankton. These organisms are capable of movement but have chloroplasts and undergo photosynthesis. They occur in several locations around Puerto Rico and across the world, however, research has shown a decrease in their occurrence in Puerto Rico by up to 80%.